science

Broad conceptual suggestions have been saved for last mention because they could call for the most dramatic or difficult change from existing research. As Reynolds, Simintiras and Vlachou (2003) have concluded, we need a valid “all-encompassing” model of IB, not just of intercultural negotiation. Some conceptual and grounded models already exist (e.g., Weiss 1993), and they could be consulted more regularly to situate empirical studies and themselves be put through rigorous testing and validation. Researchers could consider strategic aspects at a micro-analytic level and behavioral aspects at a macro level or combine the two existing paradigms via bridge topics such as deter- minants of IB negotiation outcomes.
Beyond the concern for a comprehensive model, we might significantly advance our understanding of international and IB negotiations by reconcep- tualizing process and outcome. Instead of looking for a single pattern or set of stages, however general, across countries or cultures (e.g., Adair & Brett 2005; Graham, Mintu & Rodgers 1994), should researchers think of IB negotiation as a set of processes? Similarly, treating a negotiation outcome only as a result at the very end of the process (even if measured in multiple ways, such as individual profit, joint gain, and partner satisfaction) is a some- what misleading view of negotiation. Agreements of various kinds – or more precisely “results” – are often reached throughout a negotiation. In large scale negotiations, process and outcome are intertwined and recurring, not single iterations. Complicated arrangements between real parties require con- tinuous negotiation.
Development along lines different from past research requires, among other efforts, an explication and discriminating awareness of typically implicit assumptions that guide research (see Lewicki, Weiss & Lewin 1992). Many of
 
 
them are culturally bound, not just by the nationalities of the researchers (Brett & Gelfand 2006), but also by their research cultures. More systematic communication between IB researchers and practitioners will advance IB research.
 
 
 
Conclusion
 
These reflections constitute in many ways a call for continuing yet greater investment in research on IB negotiation. Business actors in a globalizing world will increasingly engage in negotiation – in its various forms and arenas – and depend on its capacity to bring about important results. Research has a role to play in these developments. It also has a vital role to play in knowledge-building. In both respects, IB research is bound to continue con- tributing to and benefiting from work in the field of international negotiation. Much has been accomplished since Kapoor’s (1970) International Business Negotiations, but there is even more to do.
 
 
 
Acknowledgements
 
My thanks to the editor, an anonymous reviewer and David Feldman for their comments on previous versions of this paper.
 
 
 
Notes
 
1.  Criteria include place of legal establishment (incorporation), location of corporate head- quarters or a particular unit or subsidiary, and nationality of majority shareholders. Many MNEs obfuscate their ownership for marketing and other purposes.
2.  International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, September 2000 and
April 2005 at http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/01/data/ (accessed on April 8,
2006).
3.  International Telecommunication Union at http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/ wtdr_06/index.html (accessed on April 8, 2006). The “digital divide” between developed and developing countries has decreased dramatically, but total Internet usage is still low in Asia- Pacific, Arab states, and Africa. In-person connections, not just virtual ones, have also con- tinued to rise. Total annual airline passengers worldwide (all types of travel) increased 33% from 1994 to 2004 (Donoghue 2004).
4.  Some authors (e.g., Rugman & Hodgetts 2003) argue that most international business is not global but interregional (specifically between the triad zones of the U.S., Japan and EU).
5.  In February, 2006, an ABI Inform search for “international business negotia*” in a title or abstract since 1970 yielded 3,902 references. Limiting that list to scholarly journal articles
 
 
led to a subset of 749 references. On the U.S. Library of Congress website, an on-line search for “international business negotiation” literature produced over 10,000 references (although a quick examination spotted the inclusion of non-business citations). These results could be expanded by extending the search beyond English language sources.
6.  Some of the research cited below is not explicitly business-based (e.g., Gelfand et al.,
2001), but it is included because it appears often in IB negotiation researchers’ literature reviews.
7.  For other examples of contradictory findings, see Gelfand and Dyer (2000) and Weiss
(2004:459). For information about Chinese negotiators, see Cai and Waks (2002).
8.  Nicolson (1973:4) defined diplomacy as “the management of international relations by negotiation.”
9.  This relates to the question earlier in this article about differences between international and domestic M&A negotiations. Connections made between IB and IR to date include a few compilations of work from both subfields (e.g., Kremenyuk 2002), individual scholars’ cross-overs into the other subfield (e.g., Pye 1992), and IB-IR collaborations (e.g., Crump
& Zartman 2003).
10.  Practicing negotiators have their own ideas for how to improve their effectiveness. A U.S. diplomat, a veteran of hundreds of international negotiations, told me that a cultural briefing on his counterparts should tell him everything they would do from the time he stepped off the airplane at their airport (pers. comm.).
11.  Such work should also delve into how practitioners define “success” (see d’Estree et al.
2001 and International Negotiation 2002, 7(3)).
12.  This would go a long ways toward answering the question about non-superficial similari- ties and differences between international M&A negotiation, and international sales and domestic M&A negotiations. (Recall Endnote 9.)
 
 
 
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Appendix
 
Noteworthy Journal Articles on International Business Negotiation: A Sample from the Period 1970–2005 (English language only)
 
1970–79
Brunner & Taoka. 1977. Marketing and negotiating in the People’s Republic of China . . .
Journal of International Business Studies 8(2):69–82.
Stoever. 1979. Renegotiations: the cutting edge of relations between MNCs and LDCs.
Columbia Journal of World Business 14(1):5–14. Van Zandt. 1970. How to negotiate in Japan.
Harvard Business Review. November-December:45–56.
 
1980–89
Contractor. 1985. A generalized theorem for joint-venture and licensing negotiations.
Journal of International Business Studies 16(2):23–50.
de la Torre. 1981. Foreign investment and economic development: conflict and negotiation.
Journal of International Business Studies 12(2):9–32.
Encarnation & Wells. 1985. Sovereignty en garde: negotiating with foreign investors.
International Organization 39(1):47–78.
Fagre & Wells. 1982. Bargaining power of multinationals and host governments.
Journal of International Business Studies 13(2):9–23.
Graham. 1983. Brazilian, Japanese, and American business negotiations.
Journal of International Business Studies 14(1):81–96.
Kobrin. 1987. Testing the bargaining hypothesis... manufacturing... in developing countries.
International Organization 41(4):609–638.
Lecraw. 1984. Bargaining power . . . transnational corporations in developing countries.
Journal of International Business Studies 15(1):27–44.
Stewart & Keown. 1989. Talking with the dragon: negotiating in . . . China.
Columbia Journal of World Business 24(3):68–72.
 
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATION IN A GLOBALIZING WORLD            315
 
Tung. 1982. U.S.-China trade negotiations: practices, procedures and outcomes.
Journal of International Business Studies 13(2):25–38.
Weiss. 1987. Creating the GM-Toyota joint venture: a case in complex negotiation.
Columbia Journal of World Business 22(2):23–38.
 
1990–99
Brett & Okumura. 1998. Inter- and intracultural negotiation: U.S. and Japanese negotiators.
Academy of Management Journal 41(5):495–510.
Brouthers & Bamossy. 1997. The role of key stakeholders in IJV negotiations: . . . E. Europe.
Journal of International Business Studies 23:285–308.
Francis. 1991. When in Rome? . . . cultural adaptation on intercultural business negotiations.
Journal of International Business Studies 22(3):403–428.
George, Jones & Gonzalez. 1998. The role of affect in cross-cultural negotiations.
Journal of International Business Studies 29(4):749–772.
Gomes-Casseres. 1990. Firm ownership preferences and host government restrictions.
Journal of International Business Studies 21(1):1–22.
Graham, Mintu & Rodgers. 1994. Explorations of negotiation behavior in ten countries . . .
Management Science 40(1):72–95.
Kashlak, Chandran & Di Benedetto. 1998. Reciprocity in . . . telecommunications . . . contracts.
Journal of International Business Studies 29(2):281–304.
Luo, Yadong. 1999. Toward a conceptual framework of international joint venture negotiations.
Journal of International Management 5:141–165.
Morris et al. 1998. Conflict management style: accounting for cross-national differences.
Journal of International Business Studies 29(4):729–748.
Rao & Schmidt. 1998. A behavioral perspective on negotiating international alliances.
Journal of International Business Studies 29(4):665–694.
Tinsley, Curhan & Kwak. 1999. Adopting a dual lens... for... the dilemma of differences...
International Negotiation 4(1):5–22.
Vachani. 1995. Enhancing the obsolescing bargain theory: A longitudinal study . . .
Journal of International Business Studies, 26(1):159–180.
Weiss. 1993. Analysis of complex negotiations in international business: the RBC perspective.
Organization Science 4(2):269–300. Weiss. 1994. Negotiating with ‘Romans.’
Sloan Management Review 35(2):51–61.
Yan & Gray. 1994. “Bargaining power . . . in United States-China joint ventures . . .”
Academy of Management Journal 37(6):1478–1517.
 
2000–05
Adair & Brett. 2004. The negotiation dance: time, culture and behavioral sequences . . .
Organization Science 16(1):33–51.
Brannen & Salk. 2000. Partnering across borders: . . . culture in a German-Japanese joint venture.
Human Relations 53(4):451–487.
*Cai & Fink. 2002. Conflict style differences between individualists and collectivists.
Communication Monographs 69(1):67–87.
Doh & Teegen. 2002. Nongovernmental organizations as institutional actors . . .
International Business Review 11:665–684.
 
 
*Gelfand et al. 2001. Cultural influences on cognitive representations of conflict: . . . US . . . Japan.
Journal of Applied Psychology 86(6):1059–1074.
Kumar & Worm. 2004. Institutional dynamics and the negotiation process: . . . India and China.
International Journal of Conflict Management 15(3):304–334. Ramamurti. 2001. The obsolescing ‘bargaining model’ . . . revisited.
Journal of International Business Studies 32:23–39.
Saner, Yiu & Sondergaard. 2000. Business diplomacy management: A core competency . . .
Academy of Management Executive 14(1):80–92.
Tinsley. 2001. How negotiators get to yes: . . . constellation of strategies used across cul- tures . . .
Journal of Applied Psychology 86(4):583–593.
 
*not specific to business